Contemporary biblical scholars readily acknowledge the importance of a historical-critical approach in their attempts to uncover the true
message intended by the writer(s) of each book of the bible. Knowledge
of the historical setting within which an inspired writer found himself
or herself and knowledge about forms of literature and particular
styles used by each writer during specific historical periods are
indispensable to scholars as they attempt to determine the total scope
of God’s revelation through Sacred Scripture.
Much the same can be said about the approach required to understand
Christian art, particularly as it remains from the earliest centuries
of Christianity. Before we can begin to understand the significance of this art, we must be aware of the historical, cultural, and
theological influences which were present during each period of its
development. The purpose of this essay is to examine part of the legacy
of early Christian Art in an attempt to demonstrate that its value
cannot be appreciated until it is examined within its particular
historical, cultural and theological context. Perhaps after such an
examination, we shall be in a better position to understand what
significance this art holds for the Christian community today.
This study will confine itself to the iconography found on Christian
sarcophagi which were produced during the first four hundred years of
Christianity. More specifically, only two themes will be examined because I believe that a proper understanding of these
them will provide a key to understanding the dramatic shift in
the attitude of Christians before the age of Constantine to the
attitude of Christians following Constantine’s conversion.
There are reasons for restricting ourselves to only the art of
Christian sarcophagi. First, in the art of these stone caskets, we can
most clearly see the two themes with which we shall deal – the themes
of deliverance and victory. Second, because we are dealing with only
one art form, sculptural base-relief art, it is much easier to compare
different applications of the themes. Quite clearly, the colours used
in a fresco could create a certain atmosphere and therefor project a
statement which might not be attainable in sculpture. Thus, we can
trace the occurrence of these themes as they relate to a single art
form without becoming confused by specific developments which may or
may not have been facilitated through the capabilities of a certain
technique or medium. Finally, since we are dealing with art associated
with Christian burial, we are able to consider each visual statement as
it relates to the early Christian understanding of death.
It would be imprudent to begin an examination of the themes of
deliverance and victory as they are found on early Christian sarcophagi
without first taking note of the development of the Christian church
during this period. For the purposes of this study, it is vital to be
aware of the impact rendered upon the Church by Constantine the Great
and Theodosius I. Andre Grabar states that Christian art was able to
begin expression in relative freedom only because of the policy of
religious tolerance practised by the Severan emperors and their
successors in the late second century and the first half of the third
century. 1 Even through such an attitude of tolerance existed,
Christians had been subjected to several waves of persecution since
Nero’s time. Only after Constantine was converted to Christianity (A.D.
320) did Christians begin to feel a sense of unity between Church and
State which relaxed the fear of a new wave of persecution. Although
Constantine promoted Christianity it was not until Theodosius declared
it as the official state religion (A.D. 380) that Christianity began to
exert such an overwhelming influence over the entire Mediterranean
world.
Even though the scope of this paper falls mainly within the period
before the Theodosian edict, it will become evident, when we examine
the later examples of sarcophagus art, that the most fundamental changes
to the character of early Christianity, as well as its art, took place
during the period following Constantine’s conversion. From this point
in time onward, Roman emperors began to take an active roll in the
politics of the early Church as well as in the establishment of great
church buildings. This change in relationship between Church and State
was faithfully reflected in the art which was produced during this time.
If we are to begin to understand the art of early Christianity, we must
remember that the first Christians were Jews. For them, Jesus was the
Messiah whom the prophets had promised – the one who had inaugurated
the coming of the new age of triumph for God and his people. 2 Quite
possibly, this anticipation of the immanent parousia helped to postpone
the beginnings of Christian art just as much as persecution by the
Roman State. Early Christians would have been primarily concerned with
proclaiming the Good News so that as many people as possible would be
prepared for the return of Christ. The role that art could play in the proclamation of faith may not have been recognized or considered to be important. Furthermore, Jewish Law
prohibited any representational likeness of beings whether they were
divine, human or animal. It is unclear to what extent this prohibition
had effect because there is evidence of an established program of
visual images in the form of frescoes on the walls of a third century
synagogue in Dura Europos. 3 However, the fact that the Dura
synagogue is an exception rather than the rule, suggests that the
prohibition still exerted much influence even after Christian art began
to develope, In any case, it is safe to say that many years would have
passed before Christians felt complete liberation from the Jewish
prohibition.
Once Christians finally recognized that art did have a role to play in
their religion, they were immediately confronted with two problems,
both of which were related directly to the Jewish heritage from which
these Christians had emerged. As we have already seen, there was very
little Jewish art which could provide a foundation upon which the art
of the new religion could build. Thus the two problems were: a) what
images should be depicted? and b) how should they be depicted? Quite
possibly, the most easily solved of the two problems was the first one.
By the time Christian art seems to have begun (ca. A.D. 250) the canon
of Christian scripture had been firmly established. Both Old and New
Testaments were filled with vivid narratives and symbolic metaphors
which were read and waiting to be transformed into visual forms.
Ar first glance, it might appear the second problem - how to depict
these narratives and metaphors - would prove to be much more difficult
to solve. Although the Old and New Testaments provided ample material
for Christian artists, they did not provide accompanying instructions
by which such literature could be transferred into visual forms. The
Jewish prohibition of images had resulted in the absence of models
which Christian artists could adapt to their needs. However, what might
have at first seemed to be an inhibiting deficiency could have actually
served as a liberating situation. Rather than being bound by the
inheritance of an earlier visual tradition from Judaism, Christian art
was free to take advantage of whatever visual forms and styles of the
time which were suitable for its purpose.
It should be noted here also that Jerusalem, almost two hundred years
earlier, had ceased to be the centre of the Christian faith. The
Roman-Jewish wars of A.D. 66-73 had resulted in the destruction of
Jerusalem. Shortly after that event, the specific strain of
Christianity associated with Judaism had all but disappeared. As
Jerusalem and Jewish Christianity became less and less dominant, Rome
and the Hellenistic culture became more and more influential in
Christian circles. The city of Rome became the centre of the church,
and Greek philosophy became the framework for early Christian theology.
With this in mind, we should not be surprised to discover that the
Hellenistic culture, which dominated the entire Mediterranean world^
came to exert a great deal of influence on early forms and styles in
Christian art. It was in classical Greek art and in the art of pagan
mythology that Christian artists found the forms which they would use
as they began their work. With the solutions to the problems of subject
matter and form and style, early Christian art had given rise to a
peculiar combination of predominantly Jewish themes executed in the
style of Greek classical art and using Greek forms. This combination
would become the trademark of Christian art until the beginning of the
Constantinian age.
Very little is known about the crafts persons who produced the
sarcophagi which we are about to examine. However, one important item
has been established regarding the relationship between the stone
cutters who produced the sarcophagi and the people who purchased them.
Walter Lowrie explains that very few people made provision for such an
item before it was actually needed. But not many would be more
provident than men are today. Roman law allowed scant time for burials
and the survivors would have to seek hurriedly for a proper sarcophagus
among the many which were displayed in the shops, to suit the various
tastes of purchasers. We see in many instances, that the portrait of
husband and wife (image clypeata) was roughly carved with the
expectation of moulding in wax the exact treatments of the pair who
might purchase the sarcophagus. 4
The fact that most sarcophagi were “prefabricated” is an important item
for our understanding of the art that is found on them. Since, in most
cases, no one actually commissioned their works but rather purchased
one which was already completed or at least near completion, the
purchaser had little to say about the subject matter contained in the
relief sculpture which decorated the surfaces of the casket. Therefore,
rather than having a series of highly individualistic sarcophagi, it
becomes evident that most of them fall into categories. As was the case
with most other businesses, the people involved in the practice of
decorating Christian sarcophagi chose themes and subjects that would
appeal to the greatest number of customers thus making their product a
marketable commodity. (It should be noted at this point that the
purchase of a sarcophagus was reserved to Christians who had the
financial means with which to make such an acquisition - a criteria
which in itself, served to limit the number of Christian sarcophagi,
especially in the earlier years.)
Speculation that the first Christian sculptors were probably converts
from the many pagan sects throughout the Roman world, is a suggestion
which should not be taken too lightly. In fact confirming evidence can
be seen in the earliest Christian sarcophagi. On such example is the
so-called “Good Shepherd Sarcophagus”. Scholars cannot agree on whether
this sarcophagus dates from the third or fourth century. 5 However,
examination of the subject matter makes it very difficult to argue
that, if indeed it is Christian, it could have been produced later than
the end of the third century. Most of the surface area of the
sarcophagus is covered with an intricate pattern in which small winged
figures or “putti”, most of whom are engaged in various activities
associated with wine-making, are joined together or unified by the use
of grape vines which wind their ways through the activities of the
putti. The scene is not unlike those associated with pagan religions of
the same period. Pagan religions used the putti to symbolize the
reasons which, in turn were usually related to the “life, death and
rebirth” theme which was a prominent religious theme in agricultural
states. Caution must be advised at the point, so that too much
symbolism is not transferred from this motif into the Christian context
of the sarcophagus in question. Most probably, the main purpose of the
motif here is purely decorative. Similar motifs were applied to
catacomb art and again their primary function seems to be decorative
rather than symbolic. Most probably, what we have is a simple
continuation of a well established decorative scheme.
As its name suggests the dominant motif on this sarcophagus is the
“Good Shepherd”. Again, however one must be cautioned against
immediately identifying this as a purely Christian symbol. Not only is
the shepherd theme found in Old and New Testament literature 6 but,
as Charles Morey notes, it is also a “time-honoured type of Hellenic
and Hellenistic art”. 7 Examples of the shepherd motif date from the
cult images of Hermes Chiopshorus, who is depicted carrying a ram on
his shoulders, as well as Greco-Roman portrayals of the shepherd-hero
Aristaeur. 8 Thus one cannot argue that since the sarcophagus
exhibits three versions of a male figure carrying a ram, it can be
immediately identified as uniquely Christian. However, the fact that it
was found in a Christian catacomb has led most scholars to conclude
that it is indeed Christian in origin. If scholars are correct, we can
see, in this sarcophagus, the heavy influence of the Hellenistic
culture on the first expressions of Christian art. Both the vintaging
scenes and the good shepherd motif can be directly identified with
earlier as well as contemporary Hellenistic art.
It is only within their Christian context that these designs begin to
take on new significance. With the good shepherd, we have the first
example of the deliverance theme which is so characteristic of
Christian sepulchral art before the age of Constantine. As was noted
earlier the first three centuries of Christianity were punctuated by
several waves of persecution. Thus any motif which alluded to the theme
of deliverance fulfilled a dual role. Not only did such motifs support
the Christian belief in resurrection from the dead as it related to the
bodies contained within the coffins, they also provided encouragement
for friends and relatives of the deceased since they were still subject
to the spectre of persecution. Thus, Christ as the good shepherd,
delivered the faithful from death through resurrection as well as
promising deliverance from persecution, even if such deliverance first
required death at the hands of Roman officials.
By no means was the good shepherd the only symbolic visual expression
of deliverance; nor is it the most commonly used motif in the
base-relief art of early Christian sarcophagi. One would be hard
pressed to find^story which is depicted more often than the story of
Jonah. It seems to have been easy for most early Christians to see,
within Jonah’s adventure, a type of the passion, death .and
resurrection of Christ. From this point, it would have been a simple
step to identify themselves in the role of Jonah who, after finding
himself in a situation which promised certain death, suddenly found
himself delivered from the sea monster’s stomach onto a beach.
Not only did the Jonah story provide an exciting and easily remembered
illustration of deliverance, it also provided characters which could be
easily depicted by borrowing from Hellenistic art. Thus, the sea
monster depicted in the Jonah scenes of sarcophagi is in fact, the
familiar Κητος (Ceto or Keto) of Hellenistic marine mythology. 9 Probably the
best example of how Κητος was used on sarcophagi can be found on an
example which is dated toward the end of the third century. 10 In
this scene the serpentine-like body of the sea monster has been used in
much the same manner as the vines in the good shepherd sarcophagus.
What is observed is in fact not one monster but actually two monsters.
The intention is, of course, to represent two events: the swallowing of
Jonah by the monster and his emergence from the monster’s mouth. The
Hellenistic sea monster provides a very effective motif for visualizing
the Jonah story since the twisting body of the Κητος form divides the
scene into two basic time frames: before and after. Certainly this time
division would have been helpful in enabling Christians viewing the
scene to see the progression of events which led ultimately to a
positive end.
Greek influence on the Jonah theme was not confirmed to the use of the
Κητος form. The rendering of Jonah under the fig tree is unmistakably
in the classical style of the Greek reclined figure. Every time Jonah
appears under the fig tree on sarcophagus art, it is in this same Greek
style with one arm raised and bent around the top of the head. 11 It
is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Christian artists of the time
recognized that this form was difficult to improve upon and could
easily be applied to their renderings of the Jonah narrative.
As well as Jonah, other deliverance themes are also in abundance on the
earliest Christian sarcophagus art. Such narratives as Noah in his ark,
and the three Hebrews in the fiery furnace were commonly rendered
during the third century. Special mention should be made here of one
deliverance motif because with its introduction we find the first
connection between a purely symbolic art form and a theme which
depended primarily upon knowledge of the story behind it. I speak here
of the method used by early Christians to depict Daniel in the den of
lions. So far, the deliverance images we have seen have depended solely
upon knowledge of the stories behind them. In these cases, it would
seem that the viewer was expected to make a connection between the
events of the narrative and the significance of Christ for either the
person in the sarcophagus or the viewer or possibly even both. In these
cases knowledge of the past event is enough to provide hope for
deliverance from the present situation. This images place the total
emphasis on God’s action leaving man’s role as purely passive.
With the Daniel motif, a new element appears to have been added. As
with all of the motifs thus far discussed, Daniel was rendered in an
unvarying typical form. Whenever Daniel appeared he was seen with two
lions, one on either side of him. What is of special interest is the
fact that Daniel is always depicted in the well know “orant” position.
According to Lowrie, this portrayal of a figure, usually a female but
always with outstretched arms, is one of the earliest symbols used by
Christian artists. 12 In general, it is regarded as the idealization
of the Christian attitude of prayer. This symbolic image of prayer
seems to take on a special significance when it is used in conjunction
with the Daniel theme. 13 When the two images are combined, the
notion of prayer cannot be separated from story of Daniel’s deliverance
from almost certain death at the jaws of the lions. If this connection
was extended by early Christians to their own situation, one conclusion
seemed almost unavoidable: the Daniel-Orant motif would symbolize
deliverance from hardship, oppression and the perils of sin through the
power of prayer.
To this point, we have seen that the theme of deliverance played an
important role in sarcophagus art. What is important to note here is
that the images relating to this theme were the dominant ones up to the
time of Constantine’s rule. Periods of persecution as well as the
notion of sin as an oppressive element seem to have been instrumental
in facilitating the emergence of this deliverance theme. Here we can
see the influence of both theological and historical elements on early
Christian art. Furthermore, Jewish religious background and Greek
culture showed their influence as well. So dominant is the deliverance
theme, that it is difficult to find images of Christ during this period
of sarcophagus art. The good shepherd seems to have been used because
of the availability of an existing type in Hellenistic art. When other
images appear, they are usually in a secondary role, providing support
for the central theme of deliverance. Thus, on one, sarcophagus, the
image of Christ raising Lazarus . 14 (i.e. deliverance from death) is
much smaller than this central image of Jonah’s deliverance from the
sea monster.
Apparently, at this stage of sarcophagus art, the need to depict Christ
himself as the deliverer was not strongly felt. The most important
message seems to have been that suffering and death were only temporary
experiences for those who had professed belief in the Christian faith.
Furthermore, early Christian artists could easily borrow and adapt
existing images from Hellenistic culture rather than having to struggle
themselves to create new ones.
If deliverance was the dominant theme of sarcophagus art before
Constantine’s reign, victory or triumph could be regarded as the
characteristic theme in this art during and after Constantine’s reign.
We have already seen that with Constantine’s conversion, came a close
union between church and state, a union which would be formalized by
Theodosius in AD 380. As the Roman state became more influential in
Church affairs, the art of the Church began to reflect this new
relationship. This will become evident when the sarcophagus art of this
period is examined. Before, we look at Sarcophagi from the
Constantinian age, we must look at an important development which had
been taking place in Christian theology at that time. Several heresies
had sparked a concentrated effort by the Church fathers to determine
the true nature of Christ as well as the manner in which his life,
death and resurrection acted to save all of mankind. As Christological
statements began to be formalized, they began to effect developments in
Christian art during this period.
In their attempts to explain the nature of Christ’s saving work, the
Church fathers resorted to graphic images which were easily understood
by roost Christians who were exposed to them. One such image which
proved to be effective was the description of Christ’s saving work as
“a victory over sin, death and the devil”. 15 This image made use of
the idea of the devil as a very real force which had personal
qualities. It was only by overcoming this force that mankind could be
liberated from sin and death. Thus Christ’s role was the one of
conqueror. As early as the end of the second century this image began
to occur in the writings of such men as Iranaeus:
... Had he not as man overcome man’s adversary, the evening would not
have been justly overcome. Again, had it not been for God who bestowed
salvation, we should not have it as a secure possession. And if man had
not been united to God, man could not become a partaker of immorality. 16
The effectiveness of this image was long lasting. It appears as late as
in the writings of Augustine at the beginning of the fifth century. The
idea of combat seems to be even stronger:
However, the devil had to be overcome not by God’s power but by his
justice ... and what is this justice by which the devil has been
conquered? Surely it is the justice of Christ. 17
The fact that this image of victory over opposing forces should hold
such a lasting place in the early Church’s vision should not come as a
complete surprise. This image was one with which all citizens of a
society dominated by Roman Imperialism would be well acquainted. Scenes
depicting the triumph of Roman Emperors (the Arch of Galerius), the
execution of Barbarian prisoners (Column of Marcus Aureleus) and the
emperor distributing Largesse (the Arch of Constantine) were placed in
prominent public places so that everyone would be familiar with the
achievements of Rome’s leaders. If the church fathers were to
communicate Christ’s saving role it would have been prudent for them to
use a metaphorical language which would bring to mind images that every
Christian and non-Christian alike could understand.
As the relationship between church and state became more favourable
after Constantine’s conversion, it was only natural that the emerging
image of Christ be closely connected with the state. Therefor, the
victory theme, which had been evident in the writings of the Church
fathers for some time, began to appear on the relief carvings of
Christian sarcophagi. The theme is quite evident in the central images
depicted on the sarcophagus of Junius Bassius. 18 The sarcophagus
uses an architectural motif in which scenes from both Old and New
Testaments are separated by columns and are on two registers, much like
a two-storey building. In the centre of the top register, Christ is
seated, enthroned as a king with a personification of the cosmos at his
feet. The symbolism here refers to Christ’s universal sovereignty and
therefor his domination over all worldly powers including sin and
death. Immediately below the scene, centred in the bottom register,
Christ is depicted making his triumphal entry into Jerusalem. It should
not be difficult to see that both of these images are in keeping with
the Fathers’ victory and triumph theme. What is equally important is
that both images have been transposed from Roman Imperial art. It is
difficult to miss the striking similarity between the enthroned Christ
motif and the image of the emperor Cons tan tine as he distributes
largesse to representatives of conquered lands. 19 In the same
fashion, Christ’s triumphal entry is directly based upon the Roman
“adventus”, the monarch’s state entry into his city. According to
Grabar, the two scenes were “in the spirit of the new Christian
‘imperium’ which Constantine had just founded and whose rules was an
earthly counterpart of the King of Heaven...” 20
In the sarcophagus of Junius Bassius, we can see a complete reversal of
theme and content from sarcophagi of the preceding century. The
influence of the Roman state seems to dominate the forms on this
example whereas they did not play even a small role on the earlier
sarcophagi. This image of Christ in Majesty is not restricted to the
base-reliefs of the Junius Bassius sarcophagus. Other sarcophagi show
Christ standing with his right arm uplifted as he delivers the scroll
of the Law to Peter. 21 On others, either Peter or Christ himself
hold up the Cross like a sceptre or a trophy while other apostles
acclaim him as their victorious Lord. 22
With the sarcophagus of Junius Bassius and others we can see that,
images which offered the promise of deliverance from death and
oppression had been replaced by images which promoted the close ties
which had been established between the Church and the Roman State.
Christ, images of whom were difficult to find on the earlier
sarcophagi, was now the central figure and had been given the
appearance and posture of a Roman emperor. Old testament themes of
deliverance, although they were still present, were relegated to less
significant positions usually on the edge of the list of the sarcophagi.
By now it should be evident that this turnabout in early Christian
sarcophagus art was occasioned by the same forces that initiated
Christian art only a century earlier. Historical (more specifically
political) , theological and cultural pressure all had their part in
bringing about their change. I think that it is safe to say that the
art of Christian sarcophagi reflect the attitudes of Christians during
the first four hundred years of Christianity. The dramatic change in
the art forms and themes during this period are significant indicators
of the direction in which the Church was developing. It should be
evident, even after this brief study, that these art forms can only be
properly understood if they are considered as products of people who
lived in a specific time and place and who were strongly influenced by
the world which surrounded them.
We should also be able to see that theological concepts, as well as art
forms change to speak to the world of their particular time and place.
We must keep this in mind as we struggle to determine this significance
of Christianity in a world which today is so foreign to the world of
the early Christians, and -yet in some ways very similar. Our task must
be to determine those aspects of the Christian message which spoke to
the early Christians and still apply today. The method of accomplishing
this task must include a constant effort to separate historical
conditioning from authentic, unchanging truth. If done with a openness
to God’s ongoing revelation this approach should prove to be a
liberating one, an approach which ensures that we do not hold on to the
wrong principles, mistaking them for unchanging truths, when in fact
they are merely products of a certain time and place.
As we have found changes in early Christian theology and art, we should
not be frightened to expect similar changes in our present situation. A
proper attitude towards our historical Church should enable us to
embrace such changes as expressions of the universality and
timelessness of the Christian message.
NOTES
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